Egypt history is considered by many as the history of the human civilizations in which Ancient Egyptians introduced and created a civilization that leads in arts, and architecture. This civilization astonished the world and its scientists with the amount of knowledge it possessed in diversified areas. Not only this but, Egypt was the first country in the ancient time that introduced writing principals with the creation of the hieroglyphic signs and letters. Ancient Egyptians were committed to documenting and recording their history as well as the events they have created and lived through. With this great step made, Egypt was moved from prehistoric ages to become the first country with a documented history, and stable systems which made Egypt a mother of all nations. Egypt had a historic, cultural and religious role. It was the land that hosted a number of Prophets and Messengers. Prophet Ibrahim, father of all prophets, peace be upon him, came to Egypt and married the Egyptian Hajar. Prophet Joseph (“Yusuf”) also came to Egypt and became a minister, then his father Jacob (“Ya”koub”) joined him. Furthermore, the land of Egypt witnessed the most sacred dialogue between Allah may He be Glorified and His Messenger Mussa (Moses) peace be upon him. Egypt was a safe haven to the Holy family, Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ as a child, and Joseph the carpenter. They moved across the country during their historical holy journey. It was God s will that Egypt is forever a safe haven and oasis of peace, as well as a meeting point of all monotheistic religions over time. Over the course of history, Egypt witnessed a series of civilizations. Egypt was a cradle for the Pharaohnic, Greco Roman, Coptic civilizations and a protectorate for Islamic civilization. Egyptians throughout stages of history enjoyed a character of love, tolerance, heartiness, and hospitality. All such features brought them together under the Egyptian umbrella regardless of the religion factor.
Pharaonic Age
The Old Kingdom (2980-2475 B.C.): The Egyptian civilization was developed in this period when the principles of central governance were established. This era witnessed the comprehensive revival in all aspects of life; Hieroglyphic writing was devised, Kings were devoted to securing the borders, and trade activities between Egypt and Sudan became vigorous. Egypt then embarked on one of the most glorious periods in its history when the Pyramids were built starting by the Sakkara pyramid. With the flourishing of agriculture and industry, the first river Nile fleet was introduced by the Egyptians to transport their products. Navigation became one of the organized crafts that Old Egypt was famous for.
The Middle Kingdom (2160 – 1580 B.C.) Kings of the Middle Kingdom were concerned with implementing projects that benefit the people. Therefore, agriculture prospered and handicrafts flourished. Egyptian artists and engineers produced a great heritage that spread to Luxor, Fayoum, and Ein Shams. Art and literature during the same period also prospered. The age ended by the invasion and occupation of Egypt by the Hyksos.
The New Kingdom (1580 – 1150 B.C.)King Ahmus I, beat and expelled the Hyksos from Egypt. There followed a period of security and stability in Egypt. Egypt began embarking on the new era and realizing the importance of military power in defending the country. An Egyptian strong army was built, thus making it possible to build a great empire extending from the Euphrates in the east to the Fourth Cataract on the River Nile in the south. Thus, Egypt became a great power that influenced other countries up to West Asia, and a vast empire, which is the oldest in history. Kings and queens of the Twelfth Dynasty, in particular, were widely known in the fields of politics, war, culture, and religion. For instance, there was Ahmus the hero of liberation, Amenhotep I, the just king who issued a law to ban forced labor and apply fair criteria for wages and incentives. Tohotmus I was known as the warrior who expanded the Egyptian borders towards the north and south, spread education and expanded mining industry. Tohotmus III was known as a unique military genius and the first great conqueror in history. In addition, there was Tohotmus IV known as the diplomat, the first to have international treaties documented. Amenhotep III, the richest king in the ancient world opened schools or “houses of life” to spread education, plastic and applied arts. In addition, there was Akhenaton, the first king to advocate monotheism and Tut Ankh Amun who is still world-famous. Most prominent queens of the Twelfth Dynasty include Queen Iyah Hotep; wife of King Sekhetn Ra, Queen Ahmus Nefertari; wife of Ahmus I, Queen Ti; wife of Amenhotep III; mother of Akhenaton, and the most famous Queen Nefertiti; wife of King Akhenaten who ruled Egypt for about twenty years. During her reign, Egypt reached top peaks of civilization, architecture and world trade. She sent her commercial fleet and scientific missions to the land of “Pont”. In addition, she built one of the greatest and marvelous architectural monuments namely, Ad-Deir Al-Bahari on the west bank of the Nile, facing Luxor. This era also witnessed Akhenatens religious revolution, where he called for the worship of one deity symbolized in the sun disc. He also built a new capital for Egypt named Akhetaten. In 670 BC between the 21st to the 28th Dynasties, Egypt was occupied by the Assyrians followed by the Persians until the Pharaonic era came to an end with the 30th Dynasty when Alexander the Great invaded Egypt.
The Greek era
Having beaten the Persians in Asia Minor, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made the pilgrimage to Amun”s Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was infamous on the international level at that time.
Egypt under the Ptolemies (323 BC- 30 BC): After Alexander death, Ptolemy who occupied a commander position under Alexander’s rule-governed Egypt. He founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC. The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in putting an end to the Ptolemaic rule in 30 BC during the reign of Cleopatra.
The Egyptian Civilization under the Ptolemies :
Alexandria became the capital of the Ptolemaic rule in Egypt, where stately palaces and gardens were built. Alexandria was well-known not only as a center of outstanding achievements in arts, science, industry and trade but also the prime sea harbor on the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to its well-known lighthouse, considered by the Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Alexandria was further well-known for its university, which symbolized a great Hellenistic-Egyptian civilization.
– Alexandria University: At Alexandria University, founded by the Ptolemies, scientists arrived to scientific facts concerning the earth’s rotation around the sun and approximate circumference of the planet. The university was also famous for the study of medicine, particularly anatomy and surgery. Most famous scientists of the university were the geometrician Euclides, the geographer Ptolemy and the Egyptian historian Maniton.
– Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandria) and its Cultural Influence: The Ptolemies established in Alexandria a large library, which was considered the greatest in the world at that time. The library contained more than 500,000 papyrus rolls. The Ptolemies ordered that each visiting scientist should donate to the city a copy of his works, thus bringing the number of books at the Alexandria library to more than 700,000. The Ptolemies showed respect for the Egyptian religion, offered sacrifices to Egyptian deities and built temples such as those of Edfu, Dandara, and Philae in Aswan. The Ptolemies used to appear in official ceremonies in Pharaohs” apparel·
The Roman Era
In 30 B.C., Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to her unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire. During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly, glass manufacturing, flourished in Egypt. Egypt was especially known for the creation of the art of glass blowing and monopoly of paper manufacturing as well as perfume, cosmetics, and fine linen fabrics. The Egyptian capital, Alexandria, was particularly the largest trading and industrial center in the East Mediterranean and the second city of the Roman Empire. Alexandria University maintained its position as a center of scientific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the Roman era in Egypt.
The Coptic Era
Coptic architecture, still upholding the spirit of ancient Pharaonic art, served in the uninterrupted chain of Egyptian art, running down from Pharaonic to Greek and Roman eras in Egypt. Churches built since the 5th Century AD up to the Arab conquest of Egypt are models of Coptic art and architecture. The prevailing style of painting during the Coptic era was an extension of the Fresco style or oxidized color painting on gypsum coated walls, inherited from previous eras. As ancient Egyptians were familiar with the music, a unique art of church music, in harmony with the dominant musical trend of ancient Egyptian melodies emerged in Egypt during the Coptic era. Some of the church tunes played until now in the Coptic church, still bear Pharaonic names such as the Singari and Itribi tunes.
The Islamic Era
The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of Al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn El-`As built the first mosque in the country. The Nilometer on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt. Islamic architecture also flourished mainly in Al-Qatay” city and Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque which was built in the same style of Amr Ibn El-`As mosque, with the addition of a fountain, minaret, props, and the foundation signboard. The minaret of Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque is known for its unique shape among the Egyptian mosques derived from the Persian temples known as “Zigurat”. The Fatimid period also witnessed the development of local Islamic architecture. Al-Azhar, al-Anwar and al-Aqmar mosques are famous examples of Fatimid architecture in Egypt. Al-Geoshi Mausoleum is a model for dome structures and mosques built around the tombs of eminent men of religion. During the Ayyubid period, further advances were made in the field of architecture. Salah El-Din (Saladin) Citadel still stands out as a lofty, striking example of Islamic architecture. The Mamelukes were no less advanced in this field. They also left behind a great wealth of finely designed and decorated mosques, domes, mystics\” houses, palaces, schools, khans (inns), fortresses and public drinking fountains.
Modern Egypt
By virtue of all his up-to-date all-encompassing reforms, Muhammad Ali is truly considered the founder of Modern Egypt. He built a powerful army as well as a military academy. A shipbuilding industry was started in Boulaq, Cairo together with a shipyard in Alexandria. Special attention was given to agriculture and irrigation, where barrages, dams, and canals were built. In industry, Muhammad Ali adopted a policy of dispensing with foreign-made products and creating national factories and plants to meet the needs of the army and the public. In trade, he sought to provide security for internal trade routes and create a foreign trade fleet. During his reign, trade flourished. At the same time, Muhammad Ali was enthusiastically interested in spreading education to cater to government manpower needs. Schools of various levels and specializations were built and educational missions were sent to Europe to transfer modern sciences to Egypt. After his death, Muhammad Ali\”s successors tried their best to follow his suit by attempting to catch up with European civilization. During the reign of Khedive Ismail, Egypt witnessed an awakening administrative reform, while agriculture, industry, construction, and architecture prospered. Most notable of his achievements was the establishment of the Opera House, railroads and the Suez Canal which was opened to international navigation in 1869. Egypt witnessed many revolts against foreign intervention. The nationalist movement grew stronger and several popular revolts took place. However, the Orabi Revolution (1882 AD) ended up with Egypt being occupied and declared a protectorate by Britain in 1914. Accordingly, Egypt officially broke off from Ottoman sovereignty. Thus, Egypt entered the 20th Century, writhing under the yoke of British colonialist rule, plundering its resources. Popular resistance and national movements soon escalated under the nationalist leaders; Mustafa Kamel, Muhammad Fareed, and Saad Zaghloul leading the 1919 Revolution calling for independence. The British occupation of Egypt came to an end and the country was declared as an independent state in 1922. The first Egyptian constitution was issued in 1923.
Under the leadership of Gamal Abdel-Nasser, the July 1952 Revolution brought about a host of achievements including the enactment of the first agrarian reform law and the first 5-year plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt (1960). Industry and production were developed. The Aswan High Dam was completed (1960-70). Outstanding achievements were also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture, and construction. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraging national liberation movements. Cognizant since its inception of Egypt\”s leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power and untiring defense of the Palestine case in world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on June 5, 1967, against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, ending up with Israeli occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of Jordan. The Egyptian army managed successfully to stand the test of the Israeli troops in a war of attrition. In the meantime, the leader of the July Revolution, Gamal Abdel-Nasser, died on September 28, 1970. President Anwar Al-Sadat proceeded with the policy of mobilizing all state resources for the liberation of the occupied land. On October 6, 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle for liberating Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after the start of the war, the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner was raised high. In the October War, Egyptian forces scored an outstanding victory. This prompted President Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of a just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There followed the peace treaty with Israel (Camp David Accord) on March 26, 1979, with the participation of USA. This treaty was preceded by President Sadat”s visit to Israel in 1977. On April 25, 1982, Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai Peninsula and later from the frontier strip of Taba pursuant to arbitration by the International Court of Justice.